The Proceedings of "From Misconceptions to Constructed Understanding" - The Fourth International Misconceptions Seminar



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These articles represent all of authors who chose to write papers based upon their presentations. The conference was held to honor the retirement from Cornell of Dr. Joseph Novak.


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Article Title: Mind-mapping Constructive Math and Science Activities for Planning and Evaluation in Early Childhood Education

Author: Ainsa, Patricia A.

Abstract: Pre-service early childhood teachers used mind mapping to organize science concepts and document the children's level of constructed understanding. The process made the evaluation of children's understanding and curriculum planning and evaluation easy to document while imposing clarity and reinforcing and focusing the overall learning construction. Related children's literature was the medium for introducing the science concept. The mind mapping activity was evaluated by a survey questionnaire. Pre-service teachers indicated that they would use mind mapping techniques for planning, recording, reorganizing, and evaluating new understandings gained in math and science due to the imposed clarity of thought, the visual orientation, and the simplicity of the technique.

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Article Title: Thinking About Learning

Author: Alvarez, Marino C.

Abstract: This paper focuses on how teachers and students become ³communities of thinkers.² Communities in the sense that the school classroom becomes a place where ideas are shared through interactive learning environments in an atmosphere of coming to know through understanding and discussion. The Explorers of the Universe Scientific/Literacy Project is presented as a means by which teachers and students are participating in such communities using metacognitive tools and electronic communications.

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Article Title: Implications For Teaching Derived From A Constructivist-Based Model Of Learning In Science Classes

Author: Appleton, Ken

Abstract: While cognitive and social constructivism have at times been portrayed as competing paradigms, some authors such as Cobb (1994) have suggested that they are different ways of looking at the same thing. In an earlier paper, aspects of both cognitive and social constructivism were incorporated into a model used to analyse and describe student learning in science classrooms (Appleton, 1997). The model has subsequently been revised and has been used to draw implications for the teaching of science. In this paper, key elements of the model are explained, and how each may be used to inform and shape science teaching is explored.

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Article Title: Adolescents' Ideas About Provisional Historical Explanation

Author: Barca, Isabel

Abstract: Adolescents' ideas about provisional historical explanation were analysed in a sample of Portuguese 12 to 20 year-old students attending the 7th, 9th and 11th grade. In the light of a theoretical framework considering criteria for the assessment of explanatory validity, students' ideas were categorized in a model of five levels of logical progression, generated through a systematic, qualitative analysis. At Level 1 (the story), students' ideas appear mainly related to description. At Level 2 (the right explanation), there is a focus on the correct explanation, explanations are assessed in everyday terms, and the direct observation paradigm tends to be valued in history. At Level 3 (the more factors the better), students' concerns appear linked to an ideal of aggregation of factors, and memories are overvalued. At Level 4 (a consensual explanation?), there is a preoccupation about a perspectiveless neutrality, and verification of an explanatory narrative (explanations tend to take a narrative form) is a central criterion. An objectivist trend defends the search for a consensual explanation whilst a relativist view denies its possibility due to existing different perspectives. At Level 5 (perspective), neutrality and perspective are recognised as genuine features of historical explanation, these appearing in conflict with ideas of perspectiveless neutrality. Criteria for explanatory assessment are tentatively conceptualized in terms of evidential confirmation and refutation. The frequency distribution of responses by level raises the hypothesis that a majority of Portuguese adolescents might have an idea of provisionality of explanations tied to aggregation of information (Level 3). A very few (16-19 year-old eleventh graders) seem to apply more elaborate notions as confirmation/non refutation and perspectiveful neutrality (Level 5) as criteria for assessing explanations. The process of data analysis brought up some other observations leading to the formulation of particular hypotheses concerning social cognition. These findings suggest that many students tend to reason in history based on everyday assumptions about the social world, and they convert substantive information in an operational scheme which is often misunderstood by the teacher.

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Article Title: Conceptual Change Teaching And Learning: An Instructional Approach That Supports Metacognition

Author: Beeth, Michael E.

Abstract: Over the past three decades, research in conceptual change has produced more than 2800 reports in the field of conceptual change (Duit, 1993). This literature includes studies of studentsı conceptual knowledge on a variety of science topics (Duit, Goldberg & Niedderer, 1992; Pfundt & Duit, 1991; Novak, 1987; Helm & Novak, 1983 ) and a long standing recognition of the persistence of these conceptions following instruction (Driver & Easley, 1978). This research raises many questions about the role of studentsı conceptions in science learning and the role of teachers in addressing studentsı conceptions through instruction. Common to many of the strategies used to address conceptual change has been an elicitation of students' ideas on a topic, representation of studentsı ideas verbally, through illustrations or in written form, confronting students' ideas with the canonical views of science, and checking to see if studentsı ideas changed (Hewson & Hewson, 1988). This sequence of instruction ignores two assumptions of the Conceptual Change Model of Posner, Strike, Hewson and Gertzog (1982), namely the need for students to reflect on components of their conceptual knowledge as outlined in the conceptual ecology and the need for students to talk about their conceptions as well as with their conceptions -- to be metacognitive in the sense described by Kuhn, Amsel, & O'Loughlin (1988). Instruction in the classroom chosen for this study was intentionally planned to facilitate metacognitive discourse about the status of and justifications for studentsı conceptions. The teacher set out learning goals that required students to provide reasons underlying a particular conception and to reflect on their developing conceptual knowledge. Since conceptions are believed to survive and have meaning within the conceptual ecology, and since a change in a conception should be accompanied by a concomitant change in status (Hewson & Thorley, 1989), it is reasonable to assume that instruction directed at these metacognitive aspects of learning would be more likely to facilitate learning science concepts. How the teacher in this fifth grade classroom (age 10-11) facilitated metacognition for students is the subject of this research. Student outcomes as a result of this teacherıs instruction included dramatic changes in their understanding of the particulate nature of matter (water in this case) and the epistemic need for consistency when thinking about abstract objects such as particles. Changes in the students conceptions are attributed to the set of learning goals provided by the teacher. These goals encouraged students to talk about their learning and the teacher facilitated this through instructional activities that helped students become metacognitive. Characteristics of the learning environment created by this teacher and an analysis of the instructional activities she presented to students are used to answer the following research questions: 1) How did students in this classroom talk about their developing conceptual knowledge? and 2) How did this teacher facilitate knowledge development for her students?

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Article Title: Is There a Need To Go Beyond Sense Making? A Metareflection

Author: Broadway, Francis S.

Abstract: From personal reflections about the transition from teacher-as-expert to teacher-as-sense-maker, sense-making emerges as a precursor to misconceptions. The author as a veteran teacher of 20 years of 7th through 12th grade science and mathematics, and now a student of teacher education, explores constructivism, conceptual framework, and sense-making to pose the question:when you use the term misconception, are you saying that sense-making is wrong? Sense-making is a natural, active and continuous process that is occurring in the classroom that teacher educators cannot ignore, but rather build upon. Science and mathematics teacher educators need to open the possibilities and opportunities of what to know, how it knows what it knows, and who can know. As an instructional method inquiry is a foundation upon which to build learning. Short and Burke (1996) propose the purpose of inquiry is to find more functional understandings, create diversity, and broaden our thinking (p. 101). As an activity in which all learners are involved, sense-making gives voices to learners. Three assumptions, implied by the term misconception, presently important to science and mathematics education are: 1. There exists a body of scientific facts or knowledge which are Truths, to be taught, learned, and evaluated. 2. The goal of learning is to collect all the Truths. 3. Constructed understandings connected within a conceptual framework are misconceptions; hence, misconceptions can be replaced by scientific Truths. Misconception denoted deficiency within learner, and sense-making is affirmation of learners as a people and learners as learners. Two implications for science and mathematics teacher educators from the reflections of the author are: 1. Sense-making does not limit learning to learning in school. 2. Teachers are sense-makers. Both of these build upon the understanding of childrenıs learning. Learners learn before they begin school, outside school one they begin school, and continue to do most of their learning outside school. Also for children, a powerful means of learning is through imitation. Reference Short, K. G., & Burke, C. (1996). Examining our beliefs and practices through inquiry. Language Arts, 73(2), 97-104.

Keywords: Sense-making, misconceptions, inquiry learning

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Article Title: Metacognitive Skills Applied to Planning Environmental Curriculum in a Designated Ecological Emergency Zone; Niznhii Tagil, Russia

Author: Brody, Michael

Abstract: The paper describes an action research study investigating the application of metacognitive strategies; concept mapping and the Vee Diagram, to the design of new environmental curricula in Niznhii Tagil, Russia. The research was conducted over the course of a year and emphasized collaborative planning, execution and assessment of the project. Two teacher inservice workshops helped participants develop a new environmental science education course for teacher training at the Institute Pedagogica and new environmental education curricula at local schools in the city of Niznhii Tagil, Russia. This large industrial city in the middle Ural Mountains is the first designated ecological emergency zone in the Russian Federation. The conferences, meetings, workshops and curriculum development effort helped teachers, those who train teachers, and members of the community learn how they can help young people develop awareness, knowledge, and skills they need to understand their immediate situation, and to become lifelong environmental stewards. Curriculum materials emphasizing interdisciplinary approaches and inquiry oriented lessons were developed for preservice and inservice teacher training as well as high school science students.

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Article Title: Understandings Through Literacy: Using The National Standards To Examine Science And Mathematics Education

Author: Champagne, Audrey B.; Kouba, Vicky L. & Hurley, Marlene M.

Abstract: Analysis of the national standards documents for science and mathematics was performed using a consensus-building, iterative process designed to both identify those standards that addressed communication (speaking, listening, reading, and writing) and reasoning, and to identify any overt or implied differentiation in the levels of expected performance in meeting those standards. The proportion of each standardıs components that directly addressed communication and reasoning was calculated. Total components that composed concepts, principles, and abilities from the National Science Education Content Standards were calculated to be 49 of 333 (14%); components from Standards A-F of the National Science Education Science Teaching Standards were calculated to be 4 of 28 (14%); the AAAS Benchmarks for Science Literacy components of principles and abilities contained 89 of 856 (10%); the Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics contained 117 of 260 (44%) components; and, the Professional Teaching Standards for School Mathematics had 33 of 142 (23%) of the components. Examined in this paper are the cognitive components of general literacy, the components of general literacy addressed in science and mathematics national standards, the proportions of the national standards documents in science and mathematics that directly address the components of literacy, and the expectations regarding both the levels of science and mathematics literacy and the nature of student responses that can be inferred from the science and mathematics standards documents. Curriculum design and assessment practices will be informed by an approach that produces detailed definitions of science and mathematics literacy from the design of assessment tasks that align with national standards for science and mathematics and the specification of science and mathematics literate responses to the tasks.

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Article Title: Teaching For Understanding, Part II: Graphical Representations Of Dissonance And Conceptual Change

Author: Clement, John & Rea-Ramirez, Mary Anne

Abstract: This paper builds on concepts developed in the paper ³Teaching for Understanding, Part I: Concepts of Conceptual Change and Dissonance² in this volume by Mary Anne Rea-Ramirez and John Clement. In Part I we discussed the fact that proponents of various strategies for promoting conceptual change have used a variety of terms and models to explain their particular method. These variations in language make the models more difficult to understand. Through the construction of diagrammatic representations of these models, in this section we attempt to explicate what some of the various major strategies of conceptual change are, in order to understand them more fully. In addition, we present some compound models which we feel express a summary of many of the available strategies from the research on conceptual change. In Part I we argued for using a fairly broad concept of "dissonance" as a sensed disparity between an existing conception and some other entity. This can occur in mild as well as strong forms, as opposed to the term "conflict", which suggests only a strong disparity. We also presented a number of possible sources of dissonance, including: discrepant events, students' models and criticisms, and teachers' criticisms. In this paper we also discuss a different list of sources-- possible sources of ideas for model construction-- including: exploration and observations of materials, concrete examples, analogies, and suggested model elements. These have traditionally been seen as "positive" elements contributing to the construction of a new conception during learning, as opposed to "negative" dissonance producing elements during unlearning. We propose some representations for diagramming the effect of these sources of change on a student's conceptions, and illustrate this with diagrams of several approaches to teaching for conceptual change described in the literature. We then go on to propose that the distinction between negative and positive influences is to some extent an illusion: sources of "negative" influence on an existing conception may also have "positive" influences on constructing a new model, and vice versa. In particular, we will contend that dissonance can occur as a result of the positive sources of model construction. This supports the conclusion from Part I that dissonance may be involved in CC in a multitude of ways. The "positive" sources above then, instead of providing a single effect on model construction of a new model, may also provide a second effect in that they argue against an older model. We generalize this concept of a "dual effect" to all conceptual change strategies by arguing that most of them could be sources of both construction and dissonance during learning. These questions deserve empirical investigation through tutoring interviews and other means. We are particularly interested in the question as to whether different forms of dissonance can be helpful in conceptual change teaching, and under what conditions they can be a detriment.

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Article Title: Science Education and HConstructivism

Author: Ellett, Frederick S. Jr.; Allison, Derek J. & Ericson, David P.

Abstract: In his recent article in Educational Researcher, ³The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly: The Many Faces of Constructivism,² D.C. Phillips sets out to provide a clear understanding of the range of various positions involving ³constructivism.² According to Phillips, there is a very broad and loose sense in which all of us these days are constructivists. In Part I, we present Phillipsı ³way of the viewing the various forms of constructivism²; we consider Phillipsı framework for comparing the constructivisms. We will argue that it is important that Phillips finds Karl Popper to be situated at about the middle of the constructivists. In Part II, we argue that Phillips has not presented a full array of the significant possibilities at all. In developing the argument, we develop a framework that primarily takes into account the interrelations among epistemology, ontology, and (theories of) truth. We defend a form of constructivism in which ³realism and idealism come together². We also suggest that these matters are themselves related to theories of the person. To illustrate a broader framework, we present some of the features of a Hconstructivist view and then critically compare Hconstructivism with the Popperian viewpoint. In Part III, we use the Hconstructivist view to consider some of the important educational issues for the specialist in science and for the general student.

Keywords: science, epistemology, constructivism (ontic), realism

General School Subject: science

Specific School Subject: physics

Students: primary, secondary, college

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Article Title: An Exploration Of Students' Traditional Practices And Beliefs In Aspects Of Health And Nutrition

Author: Herbert, Susan

Abstract: In the tradition of Ausubel, cognitive psychologists have recognized the role of prior knowledge in the learner's active construction of meaning. It is well documented that the students' everyday practices and beliefs serve as ways of knowing prior to formal schooling, and that these practices and beliefs are sometimes at odds with those presented in the formal science classroom. The study reported in this paper is an attempt to understand the principles that underpin practices and beliefs related to health and nutrition in Trinidad and Tobago. Topics such as health and nutrition, which are typically found in many lower secondary school science curricula, readily facilitate an investigation of the prior knowledge with which students enter the classroom. A group of 12-13 year old girls, who attend an urban school, participated in the study. Specifically, their disposition towards traditional practices and beliefs was determined by means of a questionnaire and semi-structured interviews. The findings indicate that the students do engage in practices which are not found in conventional science, and they proffer explanations which are hinged on traditional beliefs. The implications for science curricula in a context such as this are discussed. In particular, this paper argues that the students' traditional practices and beliefs in the area of health and nutrition should be an intrinsic component of science curricula on this topic, which are developed for Trinidad and Tobago. As a prerequisite for curriculum development, knowledge and understanding of these practices and beliefs are essential.

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Article Title: The Development and Validation of A Taxonomy of Calculus I Studentsı Misconceptions Regarding the Derivative and Applications of the Derivative

Author: Kelley, Maureen & Carifio, James

Abstract: The purpose of this study is to develop and validate a taxonomy of Calculus I studentsı misconceptions regarding the derivative and applications of the derivative. A taxonomy of misconceptions based on the work of Skelly (1994), Borasi (1985, 1994), Colgan (1991), and Radatz (1980) was developed and then expanded based on the teaching experience of the researcher. The theoretical framework for this study is conceptual change theory. The taxonomy was validated by four experienced Calculus I teachers. A sample of fourteen northeastern Massachusetts community college Calculus I students were interviewed using an interview protocol developed and pilot studied by the researcher. The interviews were tape-recorded and transcribed. These Calculus I studentsı misconceptions will be coded by the researcher and one other experienced Calculus I teacher using the developed taxonomy of misconceptions. The codes will be analyzed descriptively and correlationally and in terms of how errors predict performance. The development and validation of a taxonomy of Calculus I studentsı misconceptions regarding the derivative and applications of the derivative should be of importance to curriculum developing, assessment and teacher training.

Keywords: Misconceptions, Calculus students, Mathematics education

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Article Title: A Case Study of the Effects of a Constructivist Method of Instruction in General Chemistry Laboratory on Conceptual Change and Knowledge Construction among College Students

Author: Lewicki, Daniel

Abstract: This paper deals with the qualitative aspects of a larger study of the effects of constructivist and traditional teaching methods on achievement, conceptual change, attitude and perception of college students in the general chemistry laboratory (Lewicki, 1993). Specifically, six case studies that relate to conceptual change and knowledge construction will be presented and discussed. It is argued that laboratory experiences may be a worthwhile or essential aspect of science education, but the literature relating to research in this area does not always support these assumptions. While the laboratory may have value for nurturing positive student attitudes and for providing opportunities for students of all abilities to demonstrate skills and techniques (Bates, 1978), it appears that students may fare no better with a laboratory experience than without one in developing understanding of chemistry (Novak, 1984).

Keywords: chemistry, laboratory, conceptual change, constructivism

General School Subject: Science

Specific School Subject: Chemistry

Students: College-level

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Article Title: Investigations in Geometric Thinking: Young Children Learning with Technology

Author: Masters, Jenny

Abstract: This paper describes a research project based on the implementation of a computer-based mathematics curriculum, characterised by tasks designed to promote exploration and investigation of geometric concepts. The project investigated the domain of early mathematical learning and application, with an emphasis on the development of spatial sense and geometric knowledge. It also it examined a learning context that encouraged children's active construction of mathematical meaning, rather than the passive transmission of facts. Additionally, it considered the implications of utilising computers as a dynamic learning environment. It was found that the computer-based investigation proved to be a nourishing environment for application of existing mathematical understandings and the construction of new ideas. The children participating in this study demonstrated many mathematical ³moments² and post tests revealed considerable improvement in geometric understanding. This success however, was seen to rely on the supportive role played by the researcher. The project report proposed that the results of this type of computer-based project would be highly dependent on teacher-support mechanisms such as scaffolding. Further research is warranted to examine the nature of teacher support and intervention during on-computer exploration tasks. It is suggested that this scaffolding should be characterised in to categories such as technical, social, emotional and cognitive. Additionally, it is deemed important that teachers are aware of these scaffolding processes and can determine when it is appropriate to intervene in the exploration process and when scaffolding should be withheld. It is anticipated that understandings of this nature will lead to richer learning experiences for young children exploring with technology-based tasks.

Keywords: geometry, technology, scaffolding

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Article Title: Constructivism: What It Is And Is Not

Author: McAvoy, Rogers & Paparozzi, Christina

Abstract: This paper presents the epistemological assumptions of Constructivism in contrast to those of a more objectivist position. Within this framework is defined the concepts of learning, instruction and evaluation. It presents examples and draws implications for the application in the design of learning settings.

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Article Title: Pairing and Compiling Discrepant Events to Help Generate Understanding of Kinetic Molecular Theory

Author: McGoey, Jon P.

Abstract: A central aspect to conceptual change strategies relies on introducing events which are discrepant to the studentsı existing conceptual framework. Discrepancies to existing theory however are dealt with by people in a variety of ways. Most frequently we reject, ignore, or explain away anomalies rather than alter our pre-existing models. This is crucial to meaningful learning since a person must accept the discrepancyıs validity as part of the restructuring process. In a classroom, a range of conceptual frameworks exists and by extension, there is a range of responses to any experimental or conceptual evidence presented to the students. This study looks at using a classroom of 25 grade 9 students (age 14) as they construct kinetic molecular theory (KMT). The general approach is identify pre-existing notions, at times group students accordingly, assign (or have students design) experiments to test their models, and to share a vast array of ideas and findings in order to come to some common ground. The common ground to all the events, discrepant or otherwise, is what we eventually call theory. Under traditional tests, students learning under these conditions perform no differently than their peers. Under other measures of understanding, these students performed significantly better than their counterparts. It would seem then that there is little to lose and much to gain by adopting this type of conceptual change strategy.

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Article Title: Second Teaching: A Vygotskiian Approach to Constructing Understanding in Physics Learning

Author: Novemsky, Lisa; Gautreau, Ronald & Pallrand, George

Abstract: Limited language proficiency within an academic discipline may be seen as making significant and potential contributions to formation and proliferation of misconceptions within that discipline. In this paper, second teaching, a pedagogical approach to addressing language aspects of introductory learning experiences, is described. Second teaching, based on the ideas of L.S. Vygotsky, is a model of structured small group activity which follows an initial presentation of new material, or first teaching. Although second teaching appears relevant to many domains, this work was generated from the specific domain of introductory physics learning involving students with limited English language proficiency.

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Article Title: Nurturing scientific understanding in a multicultural classroom: observations of interactions

Author: Orquiza de Carvalho, Lizete M.; Carvalho, Washington; Alvarado, Tawny & Gallagher, James

Abstract: In this paper we analyzed data from studying a multicultural sixth grade classroom taught by an experienced science teacher. The data were taken from video-tapes of the classes, studentsı worksheets, and interviews with the teacher. An analysis of the studentsı mental representation of scientific concepts is presented. We focused on how much students got out of the activities and how the outcomes were intertwined. One of our results is that after students became familiarized with experiments and key ideas, many of them started to relate the experiments to other experiments using the key ideas and to extend those key ideas to different experiments. It seems that if students have greater opportunities to become familiarized with a manageable number of experiments and manageable number of scientific ideas, they can gradually begin to make sense of their own experience with thinking about and using scientific ideas.

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Article Title: Teaching For Understanding, Part I: Concepts of Conceptual Change and Dissonance

Author: Rea-Ramirez, Mary Anne & Clement, John

Abstract: A problem in our field is that conceptual change is a term that has several different meanings. Disparities also occur with respect to the meanings of the terms 'conflict', 'disequilibrium', and 'dissonance'. In addition, as the strategies aimed at conceptual change have evolved, the same terms have taken on new meanings and some new implicit distinctions have emerged. The goal of this paper is threefold: 1) to present a brief review of the evolution of conceptual change concepts, 2) to propose some additional distinctions and attempt to define terms for them in a consistent way, and 3) to review articles that portray different roles dissonance plays in conceptual change strategies. It is our hope that developing a somewhat richer set of differentiated concepts will lead to better discussion and communication. The processes of conceptual change may occur as a result of theoretical or empirical stimuli originating internally within the student and externally from other students, the teacher or from observations. However, whatever the source or outcome, based on our review, it may be that dissonance is to some extent unavoidable in learning situations where a prior model exists. Dissonance could provide a useful tool in promoting conceptual change when used with care. An important question is the optimal level of dissonance for effecting conceptual change under different circumstances. Therefore, it is important to look for optimal ways to use dissonance before dismissing it as a strategy.

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Article Title: Conceptual Models Of Human Respiration And Alternative Conceptions [That Present Possible Impediments To Students' Understanding]

Author: Rea-Ramirez, Mary Anne & Clement, John

Abstract: An understanding of human respiration is necessary for children to relate issues in the world around them to their own health, i.e. the hazards of smoking, pollution, and diseases of other body systems such as heart disease and cancer. While preliminary results of this study indicate that children have a vague notion of the danger and destructive nature of smoking, there appears to be an even wider gap in children's understanding of the structure and function of the respiratory system and its connection with smoking and pollution. If little or no connection is made between the essential functions of the respiratory system and the effect of smoking, pollution, and other health issues, can we expect children to take the warnings and lessons about health issues seriously? For this reason, we have investigated the preconceptions held by students from nine to sixteen years old concerning the structure and function of the respiratory system and effects of smoking on this system. Many preconceptions held by students at a young age appear to be persistent in older children. In instances where more detailed answers were expressed by older students, they appeared to be comprised primarily of naive structural understanding and a belief that the lungs in some way affect oxygen transfer. However, little in-depth understanding was apparent. Initial analysis indicates that when students were asked what function the respiratory system played in the human body, their answers fell into three categories, they 1) described a behavior as a function, 2) described a naive function of the system, or they 3) gave no answer or a vague response unrelated to the question. It is important to note, however, that a few students from each group were able to discuss structures and functions of the respiratory system with accuracy and depth. This may indicate that the alternative conceptions surrounding human respiration are not due to the developmental age of the child, or to formal schooling, but rather to a lack of exposure to the material. This lack could lead the child to develop alternative explanations based on their own limited information. There also appears to be some evidence that some alternative conceptions do not constitute a major interference to subsequent learning. However, other Alternative conceptions do exist which provide major blocks to conceptual understanding. This study provides a conceptual framework for understanding human respiration. It includes both naive conceptions and alternative conceptions in relation to target conceptions. This allows the analysis of students' conceptual maps and should help in the design of instruction.

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Article Title: Implications Of An Instructional Strategy Emphasizing Structured Conceptual Knowledge -- Addressing Causes Of Learning Problems In Undergraduate Science

Author: Romance, Nancy R. & Vitale, Michael R.

Abstract: The argument advanced in this paper is that given the central role of conceptual knowledge in research about the teaching/learning process, college faculty should place greater emphasis on the role of structured knowledge in their discipline as a powerful framework for designing course curriculum, instruction, and assessment. Offered in the paper are strategies for instruction in freshman general science courses emphasizing the use of concept maps for representing conceptual knowledge and concept mapping as a process for constructing representations of conceptual knowledge for both faculty and students. In doing so, the implication of the paper is that faculty teaching freshman general science courses should use explicit techniques to emphasize the overall conceptual structure of the discipline being taught throughout the course rather than focusing on topics, concept sequences, or common misconceptions in isolation with the assumption that freshman students have the capability to organize and integrate the cumulative knowledge addressed.

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Article Title: Self-Efficacy of Preservice Elementary Teachers and Alternative Conceptions of Science

Author: Schoon, Kenneth J. & Boone, William J.

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to discover whether there is a relationship between self-efficacy and the holding of alternative conceptions of science. Participants (n=619) were preservice elementary teachers who had not yet begun their student teaching practicum. The instrument created for this study consisted of a section adapted from Enoch's and Riggs' Elementary Science Teaching Efficacy Belief Instrument for preservice teachers and a section which was a test for common alternative conceptions of science. This study found that the holding of certain specific alternative conceptions was associated with low self-efficacy. It may provide evidence that the holding of these alternative conceptions may actually cause a lower self-efficacy with regards to the teaching of science. It appears that because the holding of alternative conceptions may interfere with learning, persons holding them might have to struggle to understand scientific phenomena and would, as a result, feel less able to teach science to others. The specific alternative conceptions associated with persons of low self-efficacy were: That planets can be seen only with a telescope. That dinosaurs lived at the same time as cave-men. That rusty iron weighs less than the iron that it came from. That electricity is used up in appliances. That North is towards the top of a map of Antarctica.

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Article Title: Constructive Model Evolution in the Study of Electric Circuits

Author: Steinberg, Melvin S. & Clement, John J.

Abstract: Various methods have been tried for fostering conceptual change in science including analogies, discrepant events, model sequences, and student generated explanations and discussions. Yet the results are often not as encouraging as we would like. What may be needed is a framework that orchestrates the use of these different strategies at different times in order to facilitate different aspects or stages of the conceptual change process. In this paper we describe an approach to teaching electric circuits that takes a model construction cycle of generation, criticism, and modification as an organizing framework for thinking about when to use each of the above strategies. The approach uses all of the above methods as the students are led to criticize and revise their model many times in the course of the lessons. It is assumed that students need to pass through a series of more and more complex and refined intermediate models in order to make sense of the model targeted by instruction, rather than counting on a single "correct" model to carry all of the weight. We report on the case study of a student in a tutoring experiment using this approach, concentrating on the student's moments of surprise and disequilibrium. In this case, the teaching method appears to lead to the construction of an explanatory model that is fairly deeply understood in the sense that it can generate coherent explanations of a complex dynamic system.

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Macintosh File Name: Steinberg-Circuits

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Article Title: Domain-Specific Inquiry Support: Permeating Discussions with Scientific Conceptions

Author: Tabak, Iris & Reiser, Brian J.

Abstract: This paper presents research that is part of a broader project called BGuILE (Biology Guided Inquiry Learning Environments) on supporting learning through student-directed inquiry in high school biology classes. In this paper we describe how student-directed inquiry in an environment designed to focus students on key principles of evolution can provide them with opportunities for challenging their alternative beliefs, and forming new, scientific conceptions. Further, we describe how this domain-specific strategic support invites students and teacher to make key domain principles objects of discussion, and thus facilitates the types of discussion that can foster conceptual change. We compare two types of activities and discuss their relative contributions in achieving these goals, and their complementary roles in supporting the construction of scientific conceptions of evolution.

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Macintosh File Name: Tabak-Biology

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Article Title: The Interplay between Scientific Epistemological Beliefs and Preferences for Constructivist Learning Environments of Taiwanese Eighth Graders

Author: Tsai, Chin-Chung

Abstract: Science educators have identified an individual's epistemological beliefs about science as an essential feature of his (or her) conceptual ecology; these beliefs may shape his (or her) metalearning assumptions and then influence his (or her) learning orientations or preferences. This study was conducted to explore the interplay between students' scientific epistemological beliefs and their preferences for constructivist learning environments. Through analyzing forty-eight Taiwanese eighth graders' questionnaire responses, in-depth interview results and their reflections on a series of treatment lessons conducted by a combination of both traditional and constructivist instructional strategies, this study found that students having epistemological beliefs more oriented to constructivist views of science (as opposed to empiricist views about science) tended to show significantly stronger preferences to learn in the constructivist learning environments where they could (1) interact and negotiate meanings with others (p<.05), (2) integrate their prior knowledge and experiences with newly constructed knowledge (p<.05), and (3) meaningfully control their learning activities (p<.001). Qualitative details also revealed that students holding constructivist epistemological beliefs about science tended to employ more meaningful strategies when learning science, whereas students having epistemological beliefs more aligned to empiricism tended to use rote-like learning strategies to enhance their understanding. However, students' epistemological orientations were not significantly related to their achievement on traditional science tests. The main trust of the findings drawn from this study indicate that teachers need to be very aware of the student's epistemological orientation toward scientific knowledge, and to complement these preferences when designing learning experiences, especially to provide constructivist-based lessons to enhance science learning by students who are constructivist-oriented.

Keywords: scientific epistemological beliefs, learning environment, constructivism

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Macintosh File Name: Tsai-Interplay

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Article Title: Constructivistic teaching methods helping students to develop particle models in science

Author: Tveita, Johs

Abstract: We have used untraditional teaching methods as well as traditional ones in teaching particle models in science like the kinetic particle model of matter and the electron model for electric circuits to students from grade-6 to grade-10 . The methods called untraditional are drama (role play), concept mapping, writing about being particles (creative writing) and students "teaching" their parents about the models they have learned at school. Most research shows that these models are difficult to understand and to use. By using these untraditional methods alongside traditional ones more students were able to get a sound understanding of the particle models and able to explain physical phenomena by using these models.

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Macintosh File Name: Tveita-ParticleModels

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Article Title: Constructivism in health education programs

Author: Urbanowski,Reg

Abstract: Constructivism is an educational philosophy, strategy, and methodology that has gained a foothold in mainstream educational literature. It has been applied to an androgogical population in higher education. Current educational trends are focused not so much on evaluation as they are on developing criticism within learners. Higher education is beginning to promote a refocus on knowledge construction. Constructivism promotes an understanding of the learner in the context of the learning environment where the learner is an active participating member that is constructing, reconstructing, and deconstructing knowledge constantly. With this in mind, constructivism seeks to find the balance between the learnersı and the instructorsı responsibility for designing, implementing, and evaluating the learning Œexperienceı where knowledge emerges. There is a lot of discussion in educational literature of the health professions today regarding the use of clinical reasoning, problem-based learning, or the plethora of other curriculum design strategies that seek to develop the intuitive mind of the clinicians (Boelen, 1990; Jacobs, Aja, Hermenau, 1994; Lindsey, Pinnix Cox, 1994; Pope-Davis, Prieto, Whitaker, Pope-Davis, 1993). Effective and efficient evaluation of these various strategies requires the use of a philosophical kaleidoscope through which various strategies can be viewed. This article will provide the reader with an introduction to the constructivist kaleidoscope.

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Macintosh File Name: Urbanowski-Health

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Article Title: Cartographies of Cognition: Charting the Links Between Mathematics Content and Pedagogy Concepts

Author: von Minden, Avril M.; Walls, Richard T. & Nardi, Anne H.

Abstract: The foci of the current study were to (a) explicate the nature of the links between content knowledge in the math domain and the pedagogical reasoning and actions proposed in teaching suggestions for problems containing a core concept set and (b) measure the adequacy of concept maps versus Pathfinder networks as structural knowledge elicitation techniques for the content concepts in a domain. Knowledge structure representations of university mathematicians, math educators, high school teachers, middle school teachers, and elementary school teachers were compared. Because of their training in both mathematical content and pedagogical concepts, math educators were expected to integrate these domains into a coherent pedagogical content knowledge structure. This was the case. Although mathematicians possessed integrated content knowledge structures, they tended to represent teaching as transmission of knowledge and learning as accumulation of knowledge. Math educators, high school teachers, elementary teachers, and in most instances, middle school teachers, appeared to conceptualize teaching as facilitation of conceptual change and learning as an interactive process. In addition, Pathfinder network analysis showed concept maps to yield more logically coherent representations of content knowledge structure than did similarity judgments of all pairwise comparisons.

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Macintosh File Name: vonMinden-Mathematics

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Article Title: So, what is momentum? One Teacherıs Attempt to Understand Student Knowledge Construction in Physics

Author: Wessel, Warren E.

Abstract: This article reports the results of a qualitative research study exploring student learning while instructed about momentum. The researcher taught nine students in a regular classroom setting. Student struggles with construction of knowledge are described using a combination of student quotations and interpretations by the teacher/researcher. Four distinct attempts to construct the concept of momentum by student participants are identified in the discussions. Concluding thoughts present suggestions for changes to enhance student understanding of the process of mathematical representation in physics, and to instructional strategies when teaching momentum to senior physics classes.

Keywords: student knowledge construction, teacher instruction, secondary science education

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Macintosh File Name: Wessel-Momentum

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New Articles from Miscon 4

Article Title: How Students Perceive Science Experiences After Implementation of Constructivist Teaching Methods in University Level Courses

Author: Blake, Sally; Vandergrift, Guy & Gantner, Myrna

Abstract: Recent renewal efforts in science education may focus on undergraduate research and teaching, but this is just one part of the continuum of educational reform that runs from preschool through postgraduate work. If science education is to improve in institutions of higher education, then a combined effort to improve all levels of science teaching and learning must be addressed. Simultaneous renewal of all players in the educational arena is necessary for real change to occur (Goodlad, 1990). Each link in the chain of science education interlocks to forge a substantive base for the future of scientific literacy in this country. The kinds of programs offered for graduate students have significant implications for the future of undergraduate education; the professional standards adopted for student learning in grades K12 impact undergraduate education as well (NSF, 1996). Collaboration between Colleges of Science and Education are vital to the renewal effort. Traditionally these two disciplines worked within an isolationist model, where scientists often thought teaching was less intellectual than research, and teachers thought scientists were boring and arrogant. If scientific literacy is to become a reality, then both disciplines must find commonalities and unite to prepare future citizens to face the challenges of science, technology and society. America's undergraduates must attain a higher level of competence in science and America's institutions of higher education must expect all students to learn science and accept science as important to every student, rather than a field only for those interested in a specialized career (NSF, 1996).

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Article Title: Constructed Understanding: Expanding Science Concepts, Informing Teachers, and Changing the Curriculum

Author: Cohen, Michael R.

Abstract: How do our formal educational experiences affect the science concepts we think students should learn and the explanations used to teach those science concepts? What is it about our experiences as students and teachers that fosters or inhibits the implementation of a constructionist curriculum in science? This paper will look at some traditional approaches to curriculum development and suggest that ³what is intuitively obvious² may provide a ³conceptual lock² that ³remains unconscious and unknown² and limits our ability to implement a curriculum that can build a constructed understanding. The paper will propose that research on childrenıs concepts, commonly called misconceptions, can expand our understanding of curriculum, and provide new views of science content and explanations. Research on childrenıs concepts has also played a part in the development of a Constructivist approach to education and can help in our definition of Constructed Understanding.

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Article Title: Three Dimensional Concept Mapping and Student Achievement: A Proposal

Author: Farrokh, Kaveh

Abstract: Concept mapping and computer hypertext versions of concept mapping are based on meaningful learning theory (e.g., Novak, 1990; Ausubel, 1968). Another factor in meaningful learning may be multidimensionality. Current concept mapping tools fail to allow for links between multiple concept maps or topic clusters on the same pallet or screen, a vital component of concept learning (Sowa, 1983; Rumelhart, 1989; Young, 1996). The bulk of hypertext programs fail to represent a clear overview of networks as they become more complex or "tangled" (Conklin, 1987, p.39). Conklin's observation of network complexity (Conklin, 1987) is similar to difficulties that can be experienced with concept maps. Jonassen, Beissner and Yacci (1993) have noted that concept maps can sometimes be difficult to interpret due to the presence of multiple lines and labels. In addition, concept maps require all of the important relationships to be clearly and neatly depicted (Jonassen, Beissner & Yacci, 1993). This can be a very time consuming process (Jonassen, Beissner & Yacci, 1993) especially if the learner wishes to update the map with additional labels or links. The impact of these shortcomings are proposed as limiting student academic achievement. Three dimensional mapping addresses the multidimensionality of concept learning by allowing students to map in a three dimensional computer environment. Multiple concept maps can be visualized and manipulated as to allow for specific concepts from different topic clusters or concept maps to be linked. The study will involve 100 first year biology students enrolled at Langara College. Students will be randomly assigned to two groups (Group A and B), each having 50 students. Group A will be given instruction on how to construct three dimensional maps by the researcher in the first session of class. Group B will receive instruction from the same researcher in the first class session on how to construct paper and pencil concept maps. Final course marks for students in group A (concept mapping) and group B (three dimensional mapping) will be compared via a t-test. The limitations of three dimensional mapping as well as the possible theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

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Article Title: A Longitudinal Study of Pupilsı Meaningful Learning about Ecological Processes

Author: Helldén, Gustav

Abstract: In a longitudinal study of 23 pupilsı understanding of ecological processes each child was interviewed nine times from age 9-15 about conditions for life, growth and decomposition. After the last interview about ecological processes at the age of 15, the pupils listened to what they said four years earlier. They were then asked to describe how their own understanding had developed. The interviews were transcribed, described as concept maps and analysed by using concepts from Ausubelıs theory of meaningful learning. The pupils' ideas about ecological processes were challenged by cultivating plants in sealed transparent boxes and by studying leaves and soil from the ground. At the beginning of the study the pupils constructed a 'use up model' in their minds to explain how different resources were consumed by the plants. Later on they used a 'cycle model' to explain how the plants maintained life-supporting resources. Most of the pupils thought that soil was the end point for decomposition. Some of them thought that there will be more soil every year as a result of decomposition of biomass. As the pupils became older, they developed more diverse conceptions. A few of them seemed to understand the exchange of gases between organisms and their environment. Conceptions developed at an early stage seemed to be used as a basis for later concept building. The pupils described as 15-year-olds how they picked up experineces in everyday life in order to understand ecological processes.

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Article Title: The Bumpy Road to Understanding in Science: Establishing a Sample-Independent Conceptual Framework Within a Domain

Author: Sadler, Philip M.

Abstract: Qualitative studies of studentsı ideas have two major limitations: they have little power in relating the variety of conceptions within an entire domain and they cannot transcend their own limited groups of subjects to generalize to the larger population of learners. In this study, a psychometric model is used to build a framework ranking the appeal of dozens of childrenıs astronomical ideas on a single, uniform scale. This process is based on a specially constructed test taken twice by 1,250 eighth- through twelfth-grade students, at the start and end of their introductory astronomy courses. More expert subjects‹college majors, graduate students, and professors of astronomy‹ were added to build a complete and robust model. The resulting cross-sectional study helps to contrast the characterization of specific populations by testing and through teacher prediction of student performance. This study reveals that many scientific conceptions, assumed by teachers to be known by students, are not understood; misconceptions are more appealing. Many ideas are beyond the reach of students even at higher levels. The method described here has proven useful for developing constructivist curricula and evaluating teaching experiments because it identifies concepts appropriate to pursue with targeted groups and measures conceptual change along a single dimension.

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Article Title: Recent Research on Why Undergraduates Leave Science: Making Metacognitive Connections to Novak's Learning Theory

Author: Wandersee, James H.

Abstract: In early 1997, Seymour and Hewitt published their landmark ethnographic study of reasons why undergraduates of above average ability renounce their science majors, namely, Talking about Leaving: Why Undergraduates Leave the Sciences. First, this paper argues that their research is the most comprehensive ethnographic study done to date within the domain of undergraduate science education. Then, using Seymour and Hewitt's published data collected during more than 600 hours of ethnographic interviews and focus group sessions, this paper asserts that, via content analysis, a carefully extracted "cognition" subset" of their findings can provide a new benchmark with which to align our growing theoretical understanding of how students learn science. With reanalysis of their findings using Novak's theory of "Human Constructivism," this paper demonstrates that the 460 students at 13 U.S. universities who participated in this study actually revealed latent metacognitive thoughtwhich suggests they were engaged in constructing and reconstructing an implicit theory of how they learn science. It contends that when this implicit theory is made explicit for students (cf. Novak's theory as an approximation), science teaching can become more research driven, and science learning can become it's own reward.

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MLRG Publications

Meaningful Learning Research Group

California Consortium for Teacher Development